Education

DETAILED BACKGROUND

Japan is an island nation of East Asia. It is composed of four large islands and many smaller ones, which extend in a narrow arc, northeast to southwest, for a distance of about 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) off the eastern coast of Asia. The four main islands are Honshu (the largest and most populous), Hokkaido, Kyushu, and Shikoku.

Japan's culture is a blend of traditional Japanese values and modern Western ideas. Japan is the world's oldest monarchy. Its emperors traced their descent from Jimmu. Jimmu, according to mythical tradition, unified Japan and became its first emperor more than 2,500 years ago. Modern Japan, however, is a constitutional monarchy. The emperor is the symbol of the nation, with little political power.

Until slightly more than a century ago, Japan, by its own choice, was almost completely isolated from the rest of the world. It reluctantly opened to Western countries in the mid-1800's. It adopted modern technology and quickly became an industrial and military power. Following the destruction of World War II, Japan rebuilt its economy and now ranks among the world's leading industrialized nations.

People


The islands of Japan were probably settled by peoples migrating from the mainland of Asia. Over a period of many centuries they developed into a distinctive people, the Japanese. The Ainu, a people quite different from the Japanese, are the descendants of the earliest settlers of the islands. Only a few thousand have survived. Most Ainu now live on the northern island of Hokkaido.

Japan is one of the world's most densely populated countries. It has about half the population of the United States. But in area it is smaller than the state of California. Nearly two-thirds of the Japanese are city dwellers. And the number is increasing.

Religion

Shinto and Buddhism are the major religions of Japan. A very small minority of Japanese are Christians.

Shinto, meaning "the way of the gods," is a native Japanese religion. Its followers worship the forces of nature and emphasize cleanliness. Its gods, like those of ancient Greece, often personify the forces of nature. Shinto came under the influence of Buddhism, which was introduced from China. Buddhism brought a new faith and a new philosophy to Japan. Today, most Japanese see no contradiction in participating in both Shinto and Buddhist ceremonies. In fact, the typical Japanese marriage ceremony is performed according to Shinto rites, while the funeral service is Buddhist.

Way of Life

Dwellings. A traditional Japanese house is small. It is made of wood and has a tiled roof. Most houses are surrounded by a bamboo fence or hedge. Because Japan is such a densely populated country and space is limited, Japanese gardens are small. They usually contain some shrubbery and perhaps a group of carefully arranged rocks, all designed to give a feeling of peace and quiet.

On entering a Japanese house one takes off one's shoes. The floors in the inner rooms are covered with tatami, or rush matting. Sliding doors made of wood and paper enclose the rooms. Ideally, the Japanese house is sparsely furnished. But because of limited space, the average house tends to be cluttered. To one side of the main room is the tokonoma, an alcove (a small separate area) decorated with a hanging scroll. The scroll is usually a painting or a poem beautifully written with a brush. Next to the scroll is a flower arrangement of simple beauty and perhaps one or two art objects. A low, wide table is used for eating and writing. Japanese traditionally sit on zabuton, or cushions, instead of chairs. Bedding, called futon, is laid out at night on the tatami and put away in closets during the day.

This traditional style of living is rapidly changing, particularly in the cities. Apartment houses are replacing the small homes. Western-style furniture, electrical appliances, and modern kitchen equipment are now common in Japanese homes.

Few homes have central heating, however, even in the cities. Portable kerosene stoves provide the main source of heat. Many houses also contain a kotatsu. This is a sunken area heated by an electric coil under a table. The kotatsu is usually located in the main room. When a quilt is placed over the table, family members can tuck their feet into the sunken area and sit in comfort or eat a meal, even in the cold of winter.

The Traditional Bath. Many new homes and apartments have Western-style baths and showers. But the majority of Japanese still prefer the traditional Japanese bath. The bathtub is made of wood. It is quite deep and large enough to accommodate several people. The custom is to wash oneself thoroughly with soap and water before getting into the tub to soak. For this reason, the floors of the bathrooms are built to allow water to drain. One takes a bath to relax in the hot water, not just to get clean.

Marriage. The once-usual custom of arranged marriages is rapidly changing. But even when a man and woman have independently chosen each other, they still favor a traditional marriage ceremony. A Japanese bride wears an ancient hairstyle, now usually a wig rented for the occasion. A white band is tied around the top of her hair to hide the "horns of jealousy" that every woman is believed to possess. The bride's ceremonial kimono, or robe, is black or white, with a colorful design at the hem. Her obi (a sash used to fasten the kimono) is tied at the back in a butterfly knot--the symbol of a young, unmarried woman. If she wears traditional dress after she is married, she will tie the obi in a drum knot. It is fashionable for the groom to wear Western-style attire, rather than the formal men's kimono with a pleated overskirt called hakama.

Dining and Etiquette. An invitation for dinner to a Japanese home is considered a great honor. Japanese etiquette, or prescribed behavior, is quite different from that of Western countries. At a family-style dinner, the dishes are placed in the center of the table. Everyone reaches for the food with chopsticks. For more formal dinners, the guests are provided with individual serving trays. The plates and bowls are often purposely unmatched. They are chosen to enhance the food, which is artistically arranged. A typical dinner might consist of steamed rice, pickled vegetables, and a main dish of tempura--fish or vegetables dipped in batter and deep-fried in oil. Or the main dish might be sukiyaki. This is a combination of sliced beef or chicken with an assortment of vegetables. It is cooked at the table.

The Japanese language has many polite phrases appropriate for different social situations. It would be considered rude if a guest, or even members of the family, started to eat without first bowing and saying, "Ita-dakimasu [I gratefully receive this food]." After the meal is over, one bows again and says, "Gochiso-sama [Thank you for the delicious meal]." Formal bows are once again exchanged when the guest is ready to leave. The guest says, "Arigato gozaimasu [Thank you]" and "Sayonara [Good-bye]," and the host tells the guest repeatedly, "Mata dozo [Please come again]."

The Tea Ceremony. Tea is the favorite beverage of the Japanese and an ever-present part of daily life. A cup of tea is always offered to a guest. The formal tea ceremony, during which the tea is brewed and served, requires quiet concentration and the strict observance of rules. The ceremony is filled with spiritual meaning. Its correct performance was once considered one of the necessary social graces of Japanese women.

Business Practices. The business world of Japan has become completely Westernized. But some traditional customs remain. Checks and documents are stamped with the seal of a person's name or of a company, instead of being signed. People in business exchange name cards when they first meet. Japanese surnames, or last names, come before the given name. For instance, Yukio (given name) Ogawa (surname) is addressed as Ogawa Yukio-san. (San is used for Mr., Mrs., and Miss.)

One's rank is strictly observed in business. At New Year's and mid-summer, gifts are sent to clients and superiors. In small offices and shops, the soroban, or abacus (an ancient but rapid calculating device), is used. However, most business establishments in Japan, as in the United States or Europe, have the latest electronic equipment.

Language

The Japanese language is thought to be related to Korean, Manchurian, and Mongolian, and more distantly to Finnish and Hungarian. But these connections lie in the remote past. Until the 400's or 500's A.D., when Chinese characters were introduced, the Japanese had no writing system. Thereafter, a system was developed for writing Japanese using Chinese characters (kanji). Using kanji as a base, the Japanese devised two syllabic alphabets--hiragana and katakana. Each represents the same 47 syllables. The alphabets are used together with kanji in writing modern Japanese.

Children first learn hiragana and katakana and are gradually introduced to kanji. There are more than 60,000 kanji. But most people have a general knowledge of from 3,000 to 4,000 kanji. To simplify matters, most books and newspapers use only 1,850 kanji. This is the same number that high school graduates are expected to master. There is also a method of writing Japanese--called romaji--using the Roman alphabet.

Japanese is traditionally written from top to bottom, beginning at the right-hand side of the page. In modern books, especially those dealing with scientific subjects, the text appears in Western style--straight across from left to right. Children do their homework with a pen or pencil. But, because the art of beautiful writing, or calligraphy, is much esteemed, they also learn to write Japanese using a brush and black ink.


The Japanese place a high value on education. Modern schools began in Japan more than a century ago. After World War II, Japanese schools adopted a system similar to that of the United States. Nine years of schooling (six of primary school and three of middle school) are compulsory for Japanese children. Nearly all continue on to high school for three additional years. Higher education also resembles the four-year college system of the United States. There are more than 450 colleges and universities in Japan. There are also many specialized schools and junior colleges.